2. Pronunciation

Function

Dictionary pronunciation is the transcription of the sounds of speech corresponding to an alphabetic list of words so that the reader may understand how each word is pronounced.

Presentation

Most transcription systems use non-alphabetic characters which, however, are hard to memorize and certainly represent a barrier to understanding. It is estimated that only 40% of the users of a bilingual dictionary can pronounce correctly the sound of a word by reading its transcription.

According to Daniel Jones, the system must be "typographically broad", "... using the minimum number of letter shapes of simplest Romanic form". The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and the Simplified IPA Transcription are currently the most popular systems but they can hardly be described as "typographically broad", i.e. phonemic. Regrettably, a perfect phonemic or "keyboard" transcription system has not been invented yet, and the user of the bilingual dictionary has to memorize a variety of "exotic" phonetic symbols.

Being intended for Greek users, very few of the examined Greek-English dictionaries include pronunciation for the Greek headwords. It should also be added that no known monolingual Greek general dictionary provides information on pronunciation or allophonic conventions and variants, and it is only in Greek grammar books that one can find some indications as to the way in which the written word is pronounced.

3. Grammatical Information

Either in cluster or in article, the grammatical information should cover all canonical forms of the main entry that may be basic in respect of grammar, but not so in respect of semantics.

To save the users the trouble of going through long texts before they can find what they are looking for, the dictionary should have a standard order of presentation. Usually this order is:

          1. Noun
          2. Adjective
          3. Verb

Accord

Of particular importance is the principle that the definiens should reflect the part of speech of the definiendum, i.e. that the translation or definition should be in grammatical accord with the term defined or translated. In Greek-English-Greek translations this is not always possible because of the frequent lack of equivalents.

4. Translation - Definition

Translation is less complex than pure definition because in most cases what it does is merely to give the equivalent in the target language (L2). When there is no equivalent, the definition is composed by the bilingual lexicographer. The definition itself must be prescriptive by providing rules for correct usage, descriptive by showing how a language is actually used and generative so as to provide instructions for the production of an infinite number of sentences.

Criteria

When definition is required, it should be logical rather than lexical, i.e. it should capture the essence of the term defined with emphasis in defining, not in exclusive and purely linguistic, theoretical or philosophical aspects.

Vocabulary

Dictionaries for learners require definitions that must be couched in a language that is simpler than that of dictionaries for native speakers.

Depending on the degree of "anisomorphy" (lexical forms that are not parallel in two languages), the lexicographer should decide whether the definition and examples would help the learner to comprehend the definiendum or the source-language speaker to express himself in the target language.

Quality

The quality and breadth of inclusiveness of the translation or definition is one of the factors that determine the success of a bilingual dictionary. The translation presents no serious problems when the main entry has only one meaning and there is a translational equivalent. In such cases no examples are necessary. If, however, this is not the case, the definition should aim at providing as briefly as possible the information that the user needs in order to understand the unknown word or term, presented within a frame of reference and preferably, but not necessarily, by using simpler words that are included in the dictionary.

Correctness and Completeness

The translation or definition must be complete and correct in spelling, syntax, style and meaning.

In bilingual dictionaries the secondary meanings should always be included and the translation or definition is correct and complete in every respect and in every sense of the word.

Accuracy

The accuracy of the translation or definition consists in the precision of the terms used by the bilingual lexicographer. Brevity is desirable as long as it does not impair accuracy.

Clarity

The definition must be absolutely free of ambiguity. This danger is more frequent in phrasal entries combining attributives, e.g., "κατάσκοπος του εχθρού = enemy spy". In Greek it is not clear whether the spy is spying ON the enemy or FOR the enemy.

Descriptiveness

In want of a translational equivalent, the definition should provide all information required for the exact and complete description of the definiendum. In cases of untranslatable terms, the bilingual lexicographer should first alert the reader and then resort to allegory, paraphrase, approximation or idiom.

Directness

When possible, the definition or translation should begin with a corresponding part of the speech. If an analysis is required, it should always come after the noun for the noun, the adjective for the adjective and so on. In addition, every word of the incidental definition should be definable, i.e. included in the dictionary.

Brevity

The length of a translation is standard, but that of a definition may vary. The bilingual lexicographer should explain the main entry as briefly as possible but without weakening the definition.

General Principles

To avoid common mistakes, the bilingual lexicographer should remember that:

·    Words or terms that carry the sperm of ambiguity should be avoided in illustrative phrases.

·    One-word equivalence can be tricky, especially where cultural barriers are involved.

·    Where need arises, the translation or definition should be a compromise between specific accuracy and breadth of inclusiveness.

·    Describing a legal, scientific, etc. term with another term in the same class is not a definition. Special-purpose dictionaries are not subject to such a restriction, providing of course that each and every word of the definition is included in their A-Z section.

·    Self-explanatory entries are not definitions, and the bilingual lexicographer should not find the term too obvious for definition.

·    In composing one's own definition it would be advisable to look up comparable definitions in other dictionaries to make sure that one's own has not missed an essential point. 

METHODS

To preserve the balance and conformity of the content, all contributors should follow a set of standard methods, some of which are described below:

Priority

In case of polysemous words, i.e. main entries with multiple meanings, the individual translations or definitions should be listed according to their semantic priority, their currency and their frequency.

Collocation and Context

Each definition is in every respect separate from any other definition and constitutes a brief and simply worded essay that should stand by itself and provide enough clues in context to help the reader understand what the main entry means. The definition should be as specific as possible within the prescribed breadth of coverage.

Paraphrase and Analogue

Paraphrase and analogue should be used only as a last resort and should be preceded by a label, especially in treating colloquial expressions, proverbs and the like. Two words in the source language may be near synonyms, but their respective translation into the target language may be, and often is, entirely unrelated. Contrariwise, two words in one language that are semantically unrelated may correspond in translation to two near synonyms in another language.

Exemplification of Usage

Being customary context indicating common subjects and objects, exemplifications act as a most valuable clue for the target-language user.

Labels

These devices are an indispensable part of a bilingual dictionary. As a rule, they indicate style and usage, currency or temporality, frequency, specialized or technical terminology and attitude. Purpose of the labels is to alert the reader that the term has a particular or specific meaning and function.

Cross-references

Cross-reference requires extra care to avoid circularity, i.e. referring the user to an entry with a cross-reference to the original entry.

Devices of the Written Language and Punctuation Marks

These tools are very helpful in bilingual lexicography that chiefly reflects the written form of the language. They are also invaluable in the composition of invented phrases because they offer an infinite number of choices to the bilingual lexicographer. Of them, the quotation marks, parentheses or brackets and dialogue are of particular interest because of their important contribution to the definition.

Quotation marks indicate a particular meaning of a term and very often they convey attitude. Quotation marks are also to be used in case of figurative or metaphorical function of the word in examples or illustrative phrases, proverbs, aphorisms, etc.

Parentheses or brackets are equally helpful in many ways, especially in defining the objects of transitive verbs, e.g., "σελώνω (άλογο κτλ.) = saddle (a horse, etc.)". In addition, the correct use of parentheses is extremely helpful as a means of labelling.  

Dialogue is sometimes absolutely necessary to explain the function of certain words. When the entry is a part of a reply or dialogue, it should be presented in context, e.g. "Say when! — When!" or "Is that you boss? —Speaking!". Unless the entire dialogue is included, it would take a long description to explain the function of "When" or "Speaking".

continue...